Degrees of Cohesion of Molecules
To the level of what is real to us, that is, what is accessible to our five senses, each of the three states seems to manifest matter as if it was another reality, because in each of these states, matter changes radically in form, texture, color, size and volume, being discernible to some of our senses and not to others. For example, in the gaseous state, matter may be invisible to our eyes and yet be detectable to our sense of smell or touch. At the microscopic level or the non-sensory level, however, the difference between the three states of matter lies only in the degree of cohesion of the molecules of the matter, or how close the molecules are to one another.
Consequently, there is no qualitative change in the passage of matter from one state to another, as it seems to occur at the sensory level. Appearances are deceiving, our senses fool us because they are not prepared to capture the true dimension of what is real. The truth of things is often not accessible to the five senses. In the case of the states of matter, the truth seems even simpler than our senses allow us to foresee.
The difference between the states of matter depends only on the degree or the level of cohesion, aggregation or organization of the molecules that make up the matter. What differentiates one physical state from another is the way the molecules are organized, closer or further apart from one another, more or less cohesive or aggregated. For this reason, the physical states of matter can be also termed as the degree of cohesion of molecules.
In the solid state, the molecules that make up the matter have a high degree of cohesion. As the result, they have their own fixed shape and a fixed constant volume. Therefore, in this state the molecules have a low level of motion and freedom between them. The kinetic energy or the energy of motion in this state is very low.
In the liquid state, the cohesion between the molecules is reduced because they are freer and more distant from one another. Since they are freer, their movement is also greater compared to the solid state where the movement of the molecules is almost nil. Therefore, matter in this state has no definite shape, but adapts and acquires the shape of the container that contains it.
The volume is also constant, that is, the space that the liquid occupies is fixed, occupying always the same space, whatever the volume of the container, and does not vary. Its kinetic energy exceeds that of the solid state.
In the gaseous state, the dispersion or lack of cohesion between the molecules is even greater than in the liquid state, and there is practically no aggregation, so the movement of the molecules is very extensive. There are a lot of empty spaces between the molecules, which allow them to move freely. The matter in this state conforms to the shape of the container in which it is held or appears shapeless in unlimited open space.
The volume also varies, because gas has a strong tendency to expand. As the molecules move easily, the kinetic energy is very high, exceeding the kinetic energy of the solids and liquids.
Plasma
Plasma is very similar to gas. Like gas, plasma particles are spread out and move around randomly. However, unlike gas, it has one peculiarity that makes it unique. When the atoms that comprise the matter are disrupted by extreme external conditions such as very high temperature, or strong electromagnetic field, electrons are stripped from their orbit around the nucleus leaving behind a positively charged ion.
This energized gas due to the free flowing charged particles now contains electric current, and can be shaped and confined by magnetic forces. Although the electrons are free from the atom nuclei, they coexist in their vicinity so that the overall charge of the electrically charged gas remains roughly neutral. Plasma, therefore, is a type of gas composed of atoms where the electrons move around dissociated from their nuclei, resulting in a matter that is electrically charged and therefore under the influence of electromagnetic field.
As we have seen, the difference between the three states of matter is in the greater or lesser degree of cohesion of the molecules with each other. In the case of plasma, the question is not in the degree of cohesion since it is like any other gas and in this sense the degree of cohesion is at its lowest; what is really at stake is the composition of this gas.
In addition to being a gas with special properties, it is also questionable whether plasma should be considered matter or energy. Plasma could be the moment when matter turns into energy; if it burns, it transforms into light and heat. Plasma is energized gas that is the raw material for the nuclear fusion that occurs inside of stars.
For better understanding of plasma, let’s use water as an example. Under the standard atmospheric pressure and room temperature, water exists in the liquid state. If we lower the temperature to below 0 degree Celsius, liquid water changes into ice. Similarly, if we increase the temperature to above 100 degrees Celsius, water undergoes a phase change to become water vapour. Whether water exists as ice, liquid or water vapour, at the microscopic level we still have water molecules composed of two hydrogen atoms bonded to an oxygen atom, H2O. In other words, changes in the phase of matter are physical changes, not chemical changes, and the molecules remain intact and the matter is uniformly composed of H2O molecules.
If the temperature continues to rise the molecules of water will begin to break down into its atomic components. However, to generate plasma in a mixture of water solely by heating, temperature in excess of 10,000 degrees Celsius is needed to strip electrons from the atoms. It is conceivable therefore that such mixture would be a powerful source of energy.
The sun and the stars are often described as balls of hydrogen gas; in actuality, under the conditions of high temperature, and turbulent electromagnetic fields found in the sun and the stars, they are in fact composed of super heated hydrogen atoms, that is, in the form of plasma. It is no longer a difference of a greater or lesser degree of cohesion of molecules: it is something qualitatively different. It is matter in the gaseous state, subjected to such a high pressure and temperature that tremendous amount of energy in forms of light and heat are released.
Although naturally occurring plasma is not commonly found on Earth, most of the ordinary visible matter in the universe exist in the form of plasma, that is, in the form of powerful energy source. On our planet, the effect of plasma can be seen naturally in lightning and in the Auroras: Borealis at the North Pole and Australis at the South Pole, and artificially in the fluorescent lamps and the obsolete plasma televisions.
Aurora Borealis and Australis
These ethereal lights are the visible manifestation of what happens when the sun’s solar wind carrying electrically charged particles or plasma collides with gases such as oxygen and nitrogen in the Earth’s atmosphere. The sun acts as if it was a nuclear power plant, with the main difference being that in the nuclear power plants that we know, energy is created by nuclear fission, that is, the nuclei of atoms, usually uranium, are split apart to release energy, generating radioactive waste in the process thus creating an ecological problem.
However, in the nuclear power plant called the sun, as in any other star, energy is created by nuclear fusion and no radioactive waste or by-products are generated. In the sun’s core, which encompasses 25% of the sun’s radius, the temperature reaches more than 15 million degrees Celsius. At this temperature and extreme gravitational pressure, hydrogen nuclei are compressed and fused together to form helium nuclei, at a ratio of four to one, liberating a tremendous amount of energy in the process. This energy is transferred outward from the sun’s core by radiation rather than by convection so that the fusion products are not lifted outward by the heat but remain in the core.
At about 70% of the sun’s radius, closer to the sun’s surface, heat is transferred by convection where the surface temperature is a mere 5,700 degrees Celsius compared to the 15 million at its core. The currents of electrically charged gas moving by convection contributes to the resulting magnetic field of the sun. Furthermore, the very hot plasma that gets blown off the sun’s surface as the solar wind and the rotation of the sun around its axis also contribute to the sun’s magnetic field. The sun’s magnetic field complex is turbulent and dynamic, strongest at the sun’s poles and weakest at its equator. In some areas where the magnetic field flux is so concentrated that convection is inhibited, the resulting effect is reduced surface temperature which appears as dark spots or sunspots when viewed from the Earth. Because sunspots are related to the disturbances in the sun’s magnetic field that rises up to the sun’s visible surface, and are associated with solar flares containing millions of tons of plasma that are carried by solar winds into the solar system, and some towards the Earth, therefore by tracking their number at any given time can help us understand the sun’s effect on our climate, disturbances in the radio and cell phone communication etc.
The solar wind carrying charged gas travels through space at a speed of 8 million kilometers per hour, so that after six hours it passes by the planet Mercury, after twelve hours it passes by Venus and finally after eighteen hours the solar wind arrives at our planet, Earth. When it arrives here, Earth defends itself with its invisible magnetic shield, deflecting the storm that embraces our planet at the poles, where some charged particles enter the Earth’s atmosphere to react with nitrogen and oxygen creating the Aurora Borealis at the North Pole and Aurora Australis at the South.
Thunder and Lightning
A lightning is a natural high-voltage electrostatic discharge, followed by the sound of thunder that starts inside of storm clouds. When we pass through them in an airplane they seem so harmless, innocuous and neutral, but much is happening in their interior.
Water and ice move freely inside of a cloud. This movement is caused both by the ascending currents of hot air, and the downward force of gravity. Just as rubbing of any object creates static electricity, the friction between the rising particles of water and the falling particles of ice confers charges to the particles. Positive charged particles accumulate at the top of the cloud and the negative ones at the base of the cloud.
There are three types of lightning: the electrical discharge travels within different regions of the same cloud or intra-cloud, between different clouds or inter-cloud, and between the storm cloud and the ground. The majority of lightning typically occurs within the clouds. A channel, the precursor of a discharge, surges at the centre of the negative region in the lower part of the cloud and follows upwards, where the positive charges are usually concentrated, resulting in lightning.
The formation of a lightning between the cloud and the ground starts with small electric discharges in the interior of the cloud: these discharges release electrons that begin to descend vertiginously towards the ground. This search for a connection with objects on the ground, like poles, trees, and the Earth itself, is too fast and too dim to be seen by the naked eye. When the electrons reach the ground, attracted by the positive electric charge on the surface of the ground, called streamers, it is the union of these two discharges that gives rise to the lightning that we see.
Thunder
Lightning can reach roughly 30,000 degrees Celsius, heating and instantaneously rising the temperature of the air that crosses its path on its way to the ground. The air thus heated so suddenly in such a short time causes a shock wave, that is, an explosion, resulting in the thunder that we hear long after we see the lightning. This is because, on one hand, the thunder is a result of the lightning, and on the other, because the speed of sound – 300 meters per second – is far less than the speed of light – 300 million meters per second.
Facts about thunderstorm
- In the entire world, around 2000 thunderstorms occur every day, which corresponds to more than 8 million lightning strikes.
- Average lightning bolt measures about 8 kilometers long and 2.5 centimeters wide.
- The electric discharge of a lightning bolt varies between 100 million and a thousand million volts and could power for a minute a city of 200,000 inhabitants.
Philosophical considerations on the states of matter
It is our understanding that all fields of reality are governed by the same laws; that is, the same laws that govern the macrocosm, also govern the microcosm. This is the basis of the metaphor that indicates that what happens in a given field of reality has its correspondence in all other fields.
The ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny; that is, the history of life and its evolution recapitulates itself in each and every individual that comes into this world. From its conception to its birth, the history of life on our planet is recapitulated, from the first unicellular being until the appearance of the first human being. From the birth of a baby until this infant becomes self-conscious, it recapitulates the evolution of mankind since it appeared five million years ago in the Rift Valley, until it became aware of itself after learning to walk and speak.
The three-dimensional state of matter between solid, liquid, or gas depends on the degree of cohesion or freedom of the molecules of which it is formed. Can the state of matter give us a lesson on community living? We can see a clear match between organization and the degree of cohesion of molecules at different physical states of matter and the degree of cohesion of individuals in different political systems.
Solid state – The communism of North Korea
Solid state is characterized by particles that are closely packed together and are not free to move about within the substance due to strong cohesive forces: the former Soviet communism. In a way, the China of today with its social credits and above all North Korea where individuals do not enjoy any freedom and where the cohesion is an absolute value, illustrate this state well, even to the way their troops march.
They are characterized by a lack of freedom, with equality being its only value. It is a political system as rigid as the solid state of matter. The lack of freedom means that the society does not grow, does not produce wealth that spread. However, the little wealth that is there is better distributed than in capitalist countries.
Gaseous state – The liberal capitalism of the United States
The gaseous state of matter is characterized by absolute freedom of the molecules with minimal cohesion. The United States stands for the gaseous state like the North Korea is for the solid; in the liberal capitalism of the United States, the fundamental value is the freedom at all levels.
Here the law of the jungle or the survival of the fittest reigns: the most gifted live well and are rich, the less gifted are left behind. The cohesion is at its minimum and all the American nationalism focuses on is the cult of the patriotism or the flag, since the government gives nothing to its citizens. Despite of Americans paying taxes as it happens in all Western democratic countries, they receive little or nothing from the State – nothing is guaranteed, nothing is free, not even healthcare.
Liquid state – The socialism of the Scandinavia
The liquid state of matter is an intermediate state between the solid and the gas. In this state, the molecules don’t have as much freedom as the gaseous state nor are they as restricted of movement and freedom as in the solid state.
The type of socialism that exists in the Scandinavian countries is the “medio virtus” or “in medio veritas” of the political systems. It seeks to harmonize the values of equality with liberty, by means of education on the value of sharing. In this sense, tax evasion reaches its lowest level in these countries. It is not frown upon to denounce someone who tries to escape paying taxes; the quality of life in these countries exceeds that of any other Western democracy.
Plasma – The war
Also for the said fourth state of matter we can find a correspondence in society or in the world of the living. Plasma is incandescent matter resulting from the electrons being knocked out of their respective energy level around the nucleus. War is a similar phenomenon: the disruptive peoples break the harmony and the existing equilibrium. War is plasma, in which the thunder is represented by the bombs, and the heat and destruction of the lightning in the bursts of the missiles.
The metamorphosis of matter
Depending on the pressure and the temperature, matter can be found in the solid, liquid or gaseous state.
Between solids and liquids
Melting or Fusion – This is the transition from the solid state to the liquid state by heating. At a determined temperature, the molecules at the solid state vibrate with such intensity that some of them even overcome the force of cohesion and become liquid. Each substance has its characteristic melting temperature at a given pressure. This temperature is known as the melting point.
At the social level we use the idea or concept of fusion when two similar realities fuse into one another. We see this at the level of companies that merge in monopolies, following the principle of “if you can’t beat them, join them.”
Solidification or freezing – This is the transition from the liquid state to the solid state by cooling. When a body cools, its molecules vibrate less or slower. At a specific temperature, the liquid substance becomes solid because the force of cohesion increases and the molecular agitation decreases. This temperature, the freezing point, is equal to the temperature that this same substance melts.
At the social or human level, the concept of consolidation translates into giving shape to a project, a company, making it stronger, more solid, and bolder.
Between liquids and gases
Evaporation or boiling – This is the transition from the liquid state to the gaseous state by heating. The liquid absorbs heat and turns into vapour. When a liquid is heated, its molecules start to move faster. The liquid molecules closer to the heat source gain enough energy to overcome the force of cohesion, separate, and become gas which rises to the surface. They move so fast that they take off, taking with them the heat they absorbed, like a plane gaining speed on the runway until it’s able to take off into the air. Once free from the liquid state and as they are hotter than the molecules of air, they rise until they disappear, fusing into the atmospheric humility.
Much evaporates when money disappears, people disappear and flee.
Condensation – This is the transition from the gaseous state to the liquid state by cooling; for example, the formation of dew. This is the opposite process by which the vapour, upon cooling, loses its heat, causing the molecules to move less rapidly, thus losing speed and movement, until they go back to the liquid state, with the resulting reduction of movement and freedom, characteristic of the state of matter.
There is no liquidity, that is, money does not disappear, it is invested, there are no live money; money does not flow.
Between solids and gases
Sublimation – This is the transition from the solid state to the gaseous state without passing through the liquid state, and vice versa. It may occur by heating or cooling the matter; for example, dry ice is solidified carbon dioxide.
This is a word that has many applications beyond the change of state between solid and liquid or vice versa. Sublimation can be understood as the cultural exploitation of an energy or natural instinct. The transformation of heat into mechanical energy can be understood as sublimation; the use of water in a dam to produce electricity, as well as the use of wind for the same purpose, can be understood as sublimation.
Freud used this term in his book Civilization and Its Discontents to say that sexual energy or Eros can be sublimated, taking advantage of this energy for more cultural purposes. He even added that Saint Francis of Assisi was the one who knew best how to sublimate the natural energy of the Eros, diverting it from its natural flow in the sexual act and converting it into the universal love.
Fr. Jorge Amaro, IMC
hello
ReplyDelete